An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent

by St. John Henry Newman

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IT will be admitted by all Father Newman's readers, that this is the hardest work he has ever written. Hitherto it has been his habit to diversify his treatment of a grave subject by rhetorical and descriptive episodes, which recreate and charm the reader and give him fresh spirit for abstract thought; but in the present work he seems so sensibly influenced by the gravity of the task which he has undertaken, as to be incapable of digression. Then, again, he is proceeding for the most part on ground, which has hitherto been almost untrodden, and on which he does but profess to furnish "aids" towards the formation of "a grammar." And the consequence of all this is, that, notwithstanding the profusion of his exquisite illustrations, and notwithstanding his marvellous command of the English language—which he always indeed moulds to his purpose as though it had been invented for the very end of expressing his thoughts—the present Essay is very hard reading. We think then that F. Newman would have rendered very important service, had he done no more than drawn prominent attention to this noteworthy lacuna. But in fact he has treated the whole subject thus opened out, in a manner which impresses us as being at once strikingly original and at the same time in profound harmony with known truths and facts. No doubt, in several particulars he has contented himself with opening a new vein of thought, without by any means attempting to exhaust it: he has suggested many a principle, which he has left to others to exhibit in its full issue. But this was simply inevitable in so original a work. -Dublin Review, vol. xiv., April, 1870.

Book Summary

This book presents a detailed philosophical exploration of how the human mind arrives at belief and conviction. It distinguishes between the logical process of "Inference" and the unconditional act of "Assent" or belief. Newman argues that in concrete matters, absolute conviction (Certitude) is not typically reached through formal logic, but through an intuitive faculty he terms the "Illative Sense," which synthesizes a vast accumulation of probabilities into a personal, unwavering conclusion. He then applies this framework to religious faith, contending that belief in God and Christianity arises from a similar convergence of evidence apprehended by a properly disposed mind.

Section 1: Modes of Apprehension and Assent

The author begins by distinguishing between three ways of holding a proposition: Doubt (a question), Inference (a conclusion dependent on premises), and Assent (an unconditional assertion). He argues that Assent is an absolute and complete acceptance, not a matter of degrees. The perceived "strength" of a belief comes not from the act of assenting itself, but from the way the proposition is apprehended by the mind. He identifies two modes of apprehension: "Notional" and "Real." Notional apprehension deals with abstract ideas and general concepts (e.g., "Man is mortal"). Real apprehension, by contrast, is the mind's grasp of things as concrete, individual, and experiential, drawn from memory and imagination (e.g., the vivid image of a specific person's death). While notional apprehension is the domain of science and logic, real apprehension is more vivid and forceful, capable of engaging the emotions and passions, and thereby indirectly influencing action.

Section 2: The Relationship between Inference, Assent, and Certitude

This section explores the paradox of how conditional reasoning can lead to unconditional belief. Newman argues that formal inference (logic and syllogisms) is inherently inadequate for arriving at truth in the concrete world, as it deals with abstractions and must always begin from unproven first principles. He posits that the mind actually operates through "Informal Inference," a subtle and often implicit process of accumulating and converging various probabilities—too numerous, fine, and personal to be captured in formal language. The faculty that governs this process, enabling the mind to make a decisive leap from a mass of evidence to a firm conclusion, is the "Illative Sense." When this sense operates on a proposition, leading to a deliberate, reflex assent to its truth after investigation, the resulting state of mind is "Certitude." Newman contends that true Certitude is indefectible; once attained, it is permanent. Cases where people "change their certitudes" are explained as instances where the original belief was never a true certitude, but rather a mere opinion, prejudice, or profession without a reasoned foundation.

Section 3: Application to Religious Belief

The final section applies this philosophical framework to religious faith. Newman asserts that the foundation for religious inquiry is "Natural Religion," which arises from the universal experiences of conscience (revealing God as a Lawgiver and Judge), the sense of sin and guilt, and the observation of a world filled with both suffering and signs of Providence. This natural state creates an anticipation for a divine remedy, which Christianity claims to be. The evidence for Christianity is not presented as a simple syllogism but as a grand accumulation of converging probabilities, best apprehended by a mind properly prepared by these natural religious sentiments. This evidence includes the unique history of the Jewish people and their prophecies, the astonishing and counter-intuitive rise of Christianity (a kingdom built on suffering, not force), and its power to address the deepest needs of human nature. The ultimate object of Christian faith is not a set of abstract doctrines, but the living "Image of Christ," which is grasped through a "Real Assent" and becomes the transformative and sustaining power in the believer's life.